1 and 2 Maccabees

Other major sources for period

• (3rd and) 4th Maccabees?
• Josephus, Antiquities books 12 and 13 and Wars book1
• Megillat Ta'anit
• rabbinic and Qumran
Talmud, Shabbat, 23b [from Solis-Cohen book]

2 Maccabees

• abridgement of five volume work by Jason of Cyrene
• written in Greek
• 2 letters prefixed: plea to Jews in Egypt to accept Jerusalem temple
• letters (here and throughout book) often considered authentic
• emphasis on temple, not on Hasmonean house
  • Judas and his companions
• covers ca. 180-161 BCE

1 Maccabees

• written in Hebrew (although none extant)
• theme: establishment of Hasmonean house [official point of view]
• Jewish, Seleucid, and Roman documents [most considered authentic at core]
• covers ca. 175-135 BCE

Chronology

chronological notes, etc.

160 death of judas at elasa -- opposing bacchides
	question of reliability of 1 macc 9:5-9
Simon succeeded as leader and high priest
	granted independence by Demetrius II

Reasons for the persecution?

• 2 Maccabees blames sins of Israel [2 Macc 5:17-20; 6:12-16]
• initiated by jewish hellenizers?
  or by earlier revolt against hellenizers
• 1 Maccabees blames gentile arrogance [1 Macc 1:21]
• personal character of Antiochus "Epimanes" [cf Polybius 26.1]
  • but that judgment highly questionable - several "strange" things (including supression of a religion) were simply Roman
• 19th century claim of Antiochus' aim for Hellenization
  • Tacitus [Hist 5.8] indicates Antiochus' desire to convert Jews to enlightened liberalism
  • but Jerusalem was a polis from 175 to 168 with no religious persecution
  • and Antiochus' "founding" of Greek cities always at request of native populations
    • 1 Macc 1:41-43 is incredible [according to Grabbe]

Successful Conclusion?

1. Rededication of temple? [1 Macc 4:34-59] (164 BCE)
2. Defeat of Nicanor and control of Jerusalem? [2 Macc] (161 BCE, Judas)
3. Establishment of Hasmonean dynasty? [1 Macc] (134 BCE, John Hyrcanus)

Varied understandings of successful conclusion are an indication of different views of the intent of the rebellion. They are also evidence of different groupings in the society.

Sources Within 1-2 Maccabees

Sources in 2 Maccabees

	1:1-10a Palestinian Jews to Egyptian Jews about Hanukkah
			probably genuine
	1:10b-2:18 Judas to Egyptian Jews
			actually reflects time after retaking of temple
			sometimes thought to be attack on Leontopolis temple
	9:19-27 Antiochus IV to Jews
			thought genuine: does not prove what quoted for
			thought not genuine: puts hope in heaven 
				and ignores realities in Judah
	11:16-21 Lysias to Jews
			probably october 165
			translations obscure that addressed to "multitude" of Jews
	11:22-26 Antiochus V to Lysias
			most consider genuine - latest letter [after dec 164]
	11:27-33 Antiochus IV to Jewish gerousia
			dates of this and next letter identical - at least one wrong
	11:34-38 Roman ambassadors to Jewish people

Sources in 1 Maccabees

	8:23-32 Treaty with Rome
			in judas' time 162 bce - renewal under jonathan
			144 [12:3; 14:17-18]
			1 mac 14:24 has treaty under Simon
		if documents forged, may still have been treaty
	10:18-20 Alexander Balas to Jonathan
	10:25-45 Demetrius I to Jonathan
	11:30-37 Demetrius II to Jonathan
	11:57 Antiochus VI to Jonathan
	12:6-18 Jonathan to Spartans
		for 12:5-23, cf Josephus, Ant 
				12.4.10 ; 13.5.8
			letter from Areus possibly old piece of propaganda
			but possibly Spartans did have such a tradition
	12:20-23 King Areus of Sparta to high priest Onias
	13:36-40 Demetrius II to Simon
	14:20-23 Spartans to Simon
	15:2-9 Antiochus VI to Simon
	15:16-24 Circular letter from Roman consuls

Military matters

• Continuing battles between Ptolemies and Seleucids
• Continuing rivals for the Seleucid throne [and Jewish dealings with them]
• Rome and other external powers
• Jerusalem: Temple and Akra

Assorted questions and comments

Does the perpetual fire in 2 Macc 1:19 - 2:7 have anything to do with the rabbinic tradition of the 8 days oil for the dedication?

The passage 2 Macc 12:39-45 has often drawn attention due to its apparent support of prayer for the dead. [How does this relate to baptism for the dead? (1 Cor 15:29)] Notice also the clear evidence of idolatry {?} accounting for their loss.

• This is a favorite passage for those saying the "protestants" removed the deuterocanonicals because of this doctrine. [Book of Concord interprets passage differently, rather than say it's not canonical.]
• This is also one of the earliest clear references to the belief in the resurrection of the dead. (see also 2 macc 7-8)

Doctrine of creatio ex nihilo [2 macc 7:28]

Most of the common theories about the Qumran community view it as founded (or re-established) partially in reaction to improper high priest. Questions about the proper high priest go back to the time of Jeshua, but intensify in this period, with the purchase of the high priesthood at several times. Remember the high view of Simon in Sirach 50, but with the prayer for continuance of his line omitted in Greek translation.

Judith

The Book

latin translations
old Latin follows Greek -- Jerome translation from free Aramaic?
		attempt to improve by cutting vigor and adding piety?

structure
Seven chapter introduction
	Contrast of Israel's response [Jud 4] to
                surrounding nations' responses [Jud 2-3]
      Achior's explanations [Judith 5]

judean parallels
head cut off etc obvious parallel to David and Goliath
rescue of people by divine intervention - but without angel of death,
	pestilence in enemy camp, or miracles [2 kgs 6-7; isa 38]

narrative art of book shows development under influence of hellenism
	only story of Joseph shows such narrative ability
book divided into 2 parts, each with chiastic structure
	1-7 and 8-16

christian use
Judith mentioned in 1 Clement 55
		also long version of Ignatius to Philadelphians 5

The Setting

Historical

198 bce - antiochus iii captured judea/palestine
175 bce - antiochus iv ascended throne
168 bce - disturbances in jerusalem - responded to by persecution

boundaries of Israel only from 108-107 bce
	during siege of samaria by hyrcanus - before capture of scythopolis

• Post-exilic [Judith 5:18-19]
• Bethulia: unidentified town apparently in Samarian region around Dothan
  • probably means "young woman"
• Relationship to history
  • read Jud 4:9-10 ; cf Jonah 3:8
  • although incongruous historically, based partly on
    • Artaxerxes III's campaigns [as is Alexander Romance 1.2]
    • Judas' defeat of Nicanor

The Characters

• Judith
  • "Jewess"
  • elements of Miriam (sings), Deborah (gives advice) and Jael (strikes), woman of Thebez (Judg 9:53-54), woman of Abel-beth-maacah (2 Sam 20:14-22), Delilah
  • additional models: Moses, Esther, Abraham, Woman Wisdom, Judas Maccabee, Salome Alexandra
  • always in control -- male-female "reversal"
• maid
• Nebuchadnezzar: Babylonian king identified as Assyrian [both pre-exilic]
  • possibly modelled on Antiochus IV Epiphanes
  • contrast to God
• Holofernes: general of Nebuchadnezzar based on namesake general of Artaxerxes III
  • contrast to Judith
  • "loses his head before it has been cut off"
• Bagoas: eunuch of Holofernes [both as namesake and character]
• Achior: commander of the Ammonites [5:5], convert to Judaism [14:10]
  • possibly Ahiqar
  • note that conversion now possible -- even for Ammonite
  • antecedents as alien in Rahab (josh 2) and Balaam (num 22-24)
• Uzziah, leader of senate, and Joakim, high priest

"Ethical" questions

• Judith as "trickster," not liar?
  • in a folk tale, do folktale themes justify?
  • the ability to rebel in words when no other options open?
• Role of seduction: "pornography?"
  • tent as Holofernes' vagina -- mosquito net as hymen ???
  • but notice Judith's acclaimed chastity

Theme of the book: Judith 9:11

cf. Judith 16:2-17 ; Magnificat ; Benedictus

• Defeat of the Empire by an unknown little town.
• Woman destroys mighty man.

Do we still see this happening anywhere?

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This page last modified 8 October 2002.