The Apocrypha and Western
Culture
All
of us are accustomed to seeing Biblical imagery, events and stories represented
in painting, sculpture and other media, whether they be Michaelangelo’s Pieta, DaVinci’s The Last Supper, motion picture productions of The Ten Commandments, or even the recent full-length cartoon
depicting Moses as The Prince of
Egypt. However, the Apocrypha, too,
has contributed to the world of Western art, music, language, and culture.
Most people are surprised to learn how pervasive the influence of
the Apocrypha has been over the centuries.
Not only have these books inspired homilies, meditations, and liturgical
forms, but poets, dramatists, composers, and artists have drawn freely upon
them for subject matter. Even the
discovery of the New World was due in part to the influence of a passage from 2 Esdras upon Christopher
Columbus. Although erroneously
interpreted, this verse
played a significant part in his discovery of the New World.
“On the third day you
commanded the waters to be gathered together in a seventh part of the earth;
six parts you dried up and kept so that some of them might be planted and
cultivated and be of service before you.” (2
Esdras 6:42)
These
words led Columbus to reason that, if only one-seventh of the earth’s surface
is covered with water, the ocean between the west coast of Europe and the east
coast of Asia could be no great width and might be navigated in a few days with
a fair wind. It was partly by quoting
this verse from what was regarded as an authoritative book that Columbus
managed to persuade King Ferdnando and Queen Isabela of Spain to provide the
necessary financial support for his voyage.
At
one time these stories were popular and the images associated with them
immediately discernable. But, today,
many of the stories from the Apocrypha, like the books themselves, are not
universally recognized. Yet, there are
three stories from the Apocrypha which occur in the arts much more frequently
than any others: Susanna, Judith, and scenes from Tobit.
As a result, these three works appear disproportionately in our culture
and will receive the most coverage on this web page, although reference to
others is occasionally made.
The Apocrypha
& English Literature -- Sometime during either the ninth or the 10th
century, an unknown English poet turned the story of Judith into an epic of 12 cantos, transforming at the same time the
heroine into a Christian. It is
believed that the poem – titled The Lady
of the Mercians -- was written to celebrate the prowess of Queen
Æthelflaed, who like Judith, delivered her people from the fury of invaders, in
this case, the Danes.
Likewise,
during the 14th and 15th centuries, a poem called The Pistill [Epistle] of
Swete Susan circulated in Scotland.
Written in stanzas of 13 lines and characterized by an unusual
combination of alliteration and rhyme, the apocryphal story of Susanna was adorned with many
imaginative details by the author, thought to have been a certain Huchown of
Ayrshire in western Scotland.
It
is not known how well acquainted Shakespeare was with the Apocrypha; however,
we do know that two of his daughters bore the names of two of the Apocrypha’s
chief heroines -- Susanna and Judith. Of greater significance, however, is the fact that allusions to
nearly 80 passages from 11 books of the Apocrypha have been identified in
Shakespeare’s plays. The Apocrypha
& American Literature -- Noteworthy among American writers who have drawn
upon the Apocrypha for themes as well as subject matter was Longfellow. His New
England Tragedies contains references to
1 and 2 Maccabees, and the chief episodes of the courageous
Maccabean uprising are included in his poetic dramatization, Judas
Maccabaeus. The Apocrypha
& Music --
One
fine example of musical inspiration drawn from the Apocrypha appears in the
exalted hymn of thanksgiving, Nun danket
alle Gott (“Now Thank We All Our God”), written by Martin Rinkart circa
1636 when the devastating Thirty Years War was nearing its end. Dependent upon Martin Luther’s translation
of Sirach 50:22-24, two stanzas of
the hymn show the amount of borrowing (shown in italics): “Now thank we all our God And free us from all ills Also
traceable to the Apocrypha are ideas included in the familiar Christmas hymn, It Came upon the Midnight Clear. In the New Testament accounts of the
Nativity, nothing is said of the exact time of Jesus’ birth. However, it seems certain that identifying
Midnight as the hour of His birth is based on a passage from The Wisdom of Solomon: “For while gentle silence
enveloped all things, and night in its swift course was now half gone, your
all-powerful word leaped from heaven, from the royal throne.” (Wisdom 18:14-15). The
Apocrypha’s influence can also be heard in many anthems, cantatas, oratorios,
and operas, such as Handel’s oratorio Susanna.
Here are the
score and lyrics. Likewise,
the story of Judith made its way
into the early years of musical theater, with Italian and German operas on this
theme written by Salvadori, da Gagliano, Opitz, and Beccau. And, in the 19th century, the noted Russian
pianist and composer, Anton Rubenstein, published The Maccabees, an opera of monumental proportions. The Apocrypha
& Visual Art -- During the Renaissance and later, many
painters chose to depict subjects from the Apocrypha. Almost every large gallery in Europe and America has one or more
works of the old masters depicting Judith,
Tobit, or Susanna, who were the three most popular subjects from these
books. Besides paintings, artists in a
variety of media have also chosen themes from the Apocrypha. These include mosaics, frescoes, gems,
ivories, sarcophagi, enameled plaques, terra cottas, stained glass, manuscript
illumination, sculpture, and tapestries.
Some examples may be viewed on the following Web links: Tobias and the Angel Raphael
by
Pollaiuolo. Susanna and the Elders (1647) by Rembrandt
Susana and the Elders (1617) by Guernico Susanna and the Elders (1610) by Gewntileschi Susanna and the Elders (1555-56) by Tintoretto The Virgin with the Fish by Raphael Judith Slaying Holofernes by Donatello Judith with the Head of
Holofernes
by Cranach the Elder ; Judith 11 (1909) by Klimt A
more contemporary use of Apocryphal themes can also be seen in a 1938 painting
by Eugene Berman – titled Tobias and the
Angel -- which depicts a scene of two travelers, apparently Hispanic,
trudging along what appears to be the Desert Southwest. Lastly,
the more contemporary art of photography has also been used to depict a scene
from the Apocrypha. Photographer Bea
Nettles -- in her 1970 work entitled Susanna…Surprised
-- spread a photo emulsion on a muslin fabric containing a photo of the
artist as Susanna which has been stitched into the fabric within a garden
setting. Miscellaneous
Contributions -- The Apocrypha’s influence on
our culture can be observed in the frequent use of such names as Edna, Susanna
(or one of its many derivatives, such as Susan, Suzanne, and Sue), Judith (or
Judy), Raphael, and Tobias (or Toby).
Also, the word “macabre,”
according to several lexicographers, may also be derived ultimately from
“Maccabee,” alluding to the grisly and gruesome tortures inflicted upon the
Jewish martyrs. Likewise,
some common expressions and proverbs have come from the Apocrypha. The sayings, “A good name endures forever” and “You can’t touch pitch without being defiled,” are derived from Sirach 41:13 and Sirach 13:1. And, the
affirmation in 1 Esdras 4:41, “Great is Truth, and strongest of all”
(NRSV), or its Latin form, “Magna est
veritas et praevalet,” has been used frequently as a motto or maxim in a
wide variety of contexts. Conclusion As
is evident from the examples and web links provided, the contributions of the
Apocyrpha to Western culture are many.
Regardless of whether or not the books are considered canonical by one church
or another, the fact is that the stories still convey what the artists or craftsmen
intended, namely, to convey values and morals. Resources Apostolos-Cappadona,
Diane, “Martha Graham and the Quest for the Feminine in Eve, Lilith, and Judith” vol. 7, 118-133. Dance As Religious
Studies, Doug Adams, et. al., eds. New York: Crossroad, 1990) Bal,
Mieke, “Head Hunting: 'Judith' on the Cutting Edge of Knowledge.” In Journal
for the Study of the Old Testament, 63 (1994): 3-34 Bader,
Alfred. The Bible Through Dutch Eyes:
From Genesis Through the Apocrypha. Milwaukee: Milwaukee Art Center, 1976 Craven,
Toni. “Artistry and Faith in the Book of Judith.” In Semeia 8 (1977) pp.
75-101 Del
Cairo, Francisco, “Judith with the Head of Holofernes,” (1630-5) oil on canvas,
John and Mable Ringling Museum of Art, Sarasota, Florida Dijkstra,
Bram. Idols of Perversity: Fantasies of Feminine Evil in Fin-de-Siecle
Culture. New York: Oxford University Press, 1986 Encyclopaedia
Judaica Jerusalem. “Apocrypha and
Pseudepigrapha.” Jerusalem: Keter Publishing House, 1971 Encyclopaedia
Judaica Jerusalem. “Susanna and the Elders.” Jerusalem: Keter Publishing House, 1971 Encyclopaedia
Judaica Jerusalem. “Tobit, Book of.” Jerusalem: Keter Publishing House, 1971 Fineberg,
Jonathan. Art Since 1940: Strategies of Being. New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 1995
Garrard,
Mary D. Artemisia Gentileschi: The Image of the Female Hero in Italian
Baroque Art. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1989 Graham,
Martha, “Judith”, dance (1955 revised, 1962/1970) Griffith,
D.W., “Judith of Bethulia” (1913) film (58 min) Heimann,
Heidi. The Bible in Art: Miniatures,
Paintings, Drawings and Sculptures Inspired by the Old Testament (from the Notes on the Plates). London: Paidon Press, 1956 Held,
Julius S. Rembrandt and the Book of Tobit (The Gehenna Essays in Art, Vol
IV). Northampton, Massachusetts: The Gehenna Press, 1964 Nickelsburg,
George W.E. Jewish Literature Between the Bible and the Mishnah: A
Historical and Literary Introduction. Philadelphia: Fortress
Press, 1981 Novotny,
Fritz and Johannes Dobai. Gustav Klimt.
Salzburg: Verlag Galerie Welz, 1967 Piper,
David. The Illustrated History of Art. New York: Crescent Books, 1991 Rossi,
Filippo. Art Treasures of the Uffizi and Pitti. New York: Harry N. Abrams, Inc., 1957 van
Rijn, Rembrandt. “Judith and Holofernes,” (c. l652). Meso di Capodimonte,
Naples, Italy “Frescoes
and Murals.” In Universal Jewish Encyclopedia. New York: KTAV Publishing
House, 1969 Unknown. Lace, cut work, and needle lace, “Lace
border illustration of Judith severing head of Holofernes” (c.1600). Cooper-Hewitt National Design
Museum Unknown.
Flemish Gothic Tapestry, “Judith with the Head of Holofernes” (c.1525).
University of Montana Museum of Fine Arts, Missoula, Montana Weinbren,
Grahame. “Sonata, interactive conflation between ‘Judith’ (Bible) and ‘The
Kreutzer’ (Tolstoy)” (1998)
With heart and hands and voices,
Who wondrous things hath done,
In whom His world rejoices;
Who, from our mother’s arms,
Hath blessed us on our way
With countless gifts of love,
And still is ours today.
O may this bounteous God
Through all our life be near us,
With ever joyful hearts
And blessed peace to cheer us;
And keep us in His grace,
And guide us when perplexed,
In this world and the next.”Author of this page: Oscar Seara
Copyright is claimed jointly by the author, the instructor, and Nashotah House, 2001.
Listing of summaries of Deuterocanonical books.
Deuterocanonical Books start page.
Comments to: gto@nashotah.edu
This page last modified 20 August 2001.
